Комментарии. Как нас обманывают органы чувств.

Как нас обманывают органы чувств.

Комментарии.

1.

Taylor, C. C. W. 1999. “The atomists,” in A. A. Long, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Early Greek Philosophy (New York: Cambridge University Press), 181–204, doi: 10.1017/CCOL0521441226.009.

2.

Платон «Государство».

3.

Таким образом, пространство-время термин из физики. Я буду использовать его, подчеркивая технические проблемы физики и информационной теории. Я буду использовать слова «пространство» и «время» отдельно, подчеркивая их как отдельные аспекты нашего процесса восприятия.

4.

Chamovitz, D. 2012. What a Plant Knows (New York: Scientific American/Farrar, Straus and Giroux).

5.

Wiltbank, L. B., and Kehoe, D. M. 2016. “Two cyanobacterial photoreceptors regulate photosynthetic light harvesting by sensing teal, green, yellow and red light,” mBio 7 (1): e02130-15, doi: 10.1128/mBio.02130-15.

6.

Отсылка к фильму «Матрица», где судьба главного героя зависит от выбора между красной и синей таблеткой.

7.

Bogen, J. 2006. “Joseph E. Bogen,” in L. Squire, ed., The History of Neuroscience in Autobiography, Volume 5 (Amsterdam: Elsevier), 47–124.

8.

Лейбниц Г.В. Монадология/пер. Ю.П. Бартнева, В.П. Преображенского. – Москва: Рипол-Классик, 2020 г. – 200 с.

9.

Huxley, T. 1869. The Elements of Physiology and Hygiene: A Text-book for Educational Institutions (New York: Appleton), 178.

10.

James, W. 1890. The Principles of Psychology (New York: Henry Holt), 1:146, 147.

11.

Фрейд З. Основные принципы психоанализа [сборник работ]/пер. А.П. Хомика, Е.Б. Глушак – Москва: Рефл-бук, 1998 г. – 288 с.

12.

Crick, F. 1994. The Astonishing Hypothesis (New York: Scribner’s), 3.

13.

Sperry, R.W. 1974. “Lateral specialization of cerebral function in the surgically separated hemispheres,” in R. McGuigan and R. Schoonover, eds., The Psychophysiology of Thinking (New York: Academic Press), 213.

14.

Ledoux, J. E., Wilson, D. H., and Gazzaniga, M. S. 1977. “A divided mind: Observations on the conscious properties of the separated hemispheres,” Annals of Neurology 2: 417–21.

15.

Https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PFJPtVRlI64.

16.

Desimone, R., Schein, S. J., Moran, J., and Ungerleider, L. G. 1985. “Contour, color and shape analysis beyond the striate cortex,” Vision Research 25: 441–52; Desimone, R., and Schein, S. J. 1987. “Visual properties of neurons in area V4 of the macaque: Sensitivity to stimulus form,” Journal of Neurophysiology 57: 835–68; Heywood, C. A., Gadotti, A., and Cowey, A. 1992. “Cortical area V4 and its role in the perception of color,” Journal of Neuroscience 12: 4056–65; Heywood, C. A., Cowey, A., and Newcombe, F. 1994. “On the role of parvocellular (P) and magnocellular (M) pathways in cerebral achromatopsia,” Brain 117: 245–54; Lueck, C. J., Zeki, S., Friston, K. J., Deiber, M.-P., Cope, P., Cunningham, V. J., Lammertsma, A. A., Kennard, C., and Frackowiak, R. S. J. 1989. “The colour centre in the cerebral cortex of man,” Nature 340: 386–89; Motter, B. C. 1994. “Neural correlates of attentive selection for color or luminance in extrastriate area V4,” Journal of Neuroscience 14: 2178–89; Schein, S. J., Marrocco, R. T., and de Monasterio, F. M. 1982. “Is there a high concentration of color-selective cells in area V4 of monkey visual cortex?” Journal of Neurophysiology 47: 193–213; Shapley, R., and Hawken, M. J. 2011. “Color in the cortex: Single – and double-opponent cells,” Vision Research 51: 701–17; Yoshioka, T., and Dow, B. M. 1996. “Color, orientation and cytochrome oxidase reactivity in areas V1, V2, and V4 of macaque monkey visual cortex,” Behavioural Brain Research 76: 71–88; Yoshioka, T., Dow, B. M., and Vautin, R. G. 1996. “Neuronal mechanisms of color categorization in areas V1, V2, and V4 of macaque monkey visual cortex,” Behavioural Brain Research 76: 51–70; Zeki, S. 1973. “Colour coding in rhesus monkey prestriate cortex,” Brain Research 53: 422–27; Zeki, S. 1980. “The representation of colours in the cerebral cortex,” Nature 284: 412–18; Zeki, S. 1983. “Colour coding in the cerebral cortex: The reaction of cells in monkey visual cortex to wavelengths and colours,” Neuroscience 9: 741–65; Zeki, S. 1985. “Colour pathways and hierarchies in the cerebral cortex,” in D. Ottoson and S. Zeki, eds., Central and Peripheral Mechanisms of Colour Vision (London: Macmillan).

17.

О. Сакс «Антрополог на Марсе».

18.

Там же; Zeki, S. 1993. A Vision of the Brain (Boston: Blackwell Scientific Publications), 279.

19.

Penfield, W., and Boldrey, E. 1937. “Somatic motor and sensory representation in the cerebral cortex of man as studied by electrical stimulation,” Brain 60(4): 389–443.

20.

В.С. Рамачандран «Фантомы мозга».

21.

Chalmers, D. 1998. “What is a neural correlate of consciousness?” in T. Metzinger, ed., Neural correlates of consciousness: Empirical and conceptual questions (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press), 17–40; Koch, C. 2004. The Quest for Consciousness: A Neurobiological Approach (Englewood, CO: Roberts & Company Publishers).

22.

Больше головоломок про причинно-следственные связи можно найти у Beebee, H., Hitchcock, C., and Menzies, P., eds. 2009. The Oxford Handbook of Causation (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press).

23.

Tagliazucchi, E., Chialvo, D. R., Siniatchkin, M., Amico, E., Brichant, J-F., Bonhomme, V., Noirhomme, Q., Laufs, H., and Laureys, S. 2016. “Large-scale signatures of unconsciousness are consistent with a departure from critical dynamics,” Journal of the Royal Society, Interface 13: 20151027.

24.

25.

Aru, J., Bachmann, T., Singer, W., and Melloni, L. 2012. “Distilling the neural correlates of consciousness,” Neuroscience and Behavioral Reviews 36: 737–46.

26.

Kindt, M., Soeter, M., and Vervliet, B. 2009. “Beyond extinction: Erasing human fear responses and preventing the return of fear,” Nature Neuroscience 12(3): 256–58; Soeter, M., and Kindt, M. 2015. “An abrupt transformation of phobic behavior after a post-retrieval amnesic agent,” Biological Psychiatry 78: 880–86.

27.

Denny, C. A., et al. 2014. “Hippocampal memory traces are differentially modulated by experience, time, and adult neurogenesis,” Neuron 83: 189–201; Cazzulino, A. S., Martinez, R., Tomm, N. K., and Denny, C. A. 2016. “Improved specificity of hippocampal memory trace labeling,” Hippocampus, doi: 10.1002/hipo.22556.

28.

Blackmore, S. 2010. Consciousness: An Introduction (New York: Routledge); Д. Чалмерс «Сознающий ум. В поисках фундаментальной теории»; Revonsuo, A. 2010. Consciousness: The Science of Subjectivity (New York: Psychology Press).

29.

Кто-то может возразить, что теория интегрированной информации Тонони предлагает такие законы (Oizumi, M., Albantakis, L., and Tononi, G. 2014. “From the phenomenology to the mechanisms of consciousness: Integrated information theory 3.0,” PLOS Computational Biology 10: e1003588). Но это не так. Она не дает законов, которые отождествляют конкретный сознательный опыт, как например вкус шоколада, с конкретным типом мозговой активности. И она не дает законов о том, как конкретный опыт должен измениться при изменении конкретной мозговой активности. То же самое верно и для редуктивных функционалистских теорий сознания, которые отождествляют ментальные состояния (включая сознательный опыт) с функциональными процессами вычислительных систем, биологических или нет. Ни один редуктивный функционалист не предложил ни одного конкретного тождества между конкретным сознательным опытом (или классом сознательных опытов) и конкретными функциональными процессами. Редуктивный функционализм обладает еще одной проблемой: согласно теореме перестановок можно доказать его ошибочность (Hoffman, D. D. 2006a. “The scrambling theorem: A simple proof of the logical possibility of spectrum inversion,” Consciousness and Cognition 15: 31–45; Hoffman, D. D. 2006b. “The Scrambling Theorem unscrambled: A response to commentaries,” Consciousness and Cognition 15: 51–53). Из теоремы перестановок также следует, что сознательный опыт не тождествен использованию информации для распознавания возможностей и управления поведением в реальном времени. Э. Чемеро (в книге Chemero, A. 2009. Radical Embodied Cognitive Science [Cambridge, MA: MIT Press]), например, утверждает, что «В радикальной науке воплощенного познания распознавание возможностей и управление поведением в реальном времени и есть проживание сознательного опыта. Когда мы объясним, как животные используют информацию, чтобы непосредственно воспринимать и действовать в своих нишах, мы также объясним их сознательный опыт». Теорема перестановок доказывает, что это заявленное тождество неверно. Более того, ни один сторонник воплощенного познания не предложил ни одного конкретного тождества между конкретным сознательным опытом (или классом сознательных опытов) и конкретным использованием информации для распознавания возможностей и управления поведением в реальном времени. Также нет никаких предложений для принципов, которые объяснили бы подобные тождества: почему конкретным использованием информации для распознавания возможностей и управления поведением в реальном времени будет сознательный опыт, скажем, вкуса ванили? Почему это конкретное использование информации для распознавания возможностей и управления поведением в реальном времени не может быть, скажем, вкусом шоколада или ощущением гладкой холодной колонны льда? Какие научные принципы исключают другие сознательные опыты? Никаких никогда не предлагали. Согласно теореме перестановок, таких принципов не существует.

30.

Chomsky, N. 2016. What Kind of Creatures Are We? (New York: Columbia University Press).

31.

Anscombe, G. E. M. 1959. An Introduction to Wittgenstein’s Tractatus (New York: Harper & Row), 151.

32.

А.О. Лавджой «Великая цепь бытия».

33.

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34.

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35.

Уайльд О. Женщина не стоящая внимания/пер. Н. Дарузес // Уайльд О. Избранное – Санкт-Петербург: Кристалл, 1999 г. – 735 с.

36.

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37.

Дойл А.К. Тайна Боскомской долины/пер. М. Бессараб//Дойл А.К. Записки о Шерлоке Холмсе – Москва: Детгиз, 1956 г. – 624 с.

38.

Изображение Шарбат Гулы можно увидеть по ссылке https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File: Sharbat_Gula.jpg.

39.

Peshek, D., Sammak-Nejad, N., Hoffman, D. D., and Foley, P. 2011. “Preliminary evidence that the limbal ring influences facial attractiveness,” Evolutionary Psychology 9: 137–46.

40.

Peshek, D., Sammak-Nejad, N., Hoffman, D. D., and Foley, P. 2011. “Preliminary evidence that the limbal ring influences facial attractiveness,” Evolutionary Psychology 9: 137–46.

41.

Peshek, D. 2013. “Evaluations of facial attractiveness and expression,” PhD diss., University of California – Irvine.

42.

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43.

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44.

Sammaknejad, N. 2012. “Facial attractiveness: The role of iris size, pupil size, and scleral color,” PhD diss., University of California – Irvine.

45.

Carcio, H. A. 1998. Management of the Infertile Woman (Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins); Rosenthal, M. S. 2002. The Fertility Sourcebook. 3rd edition (Chicago: Contemporary Books).

46.

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47.

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48.

Отношение диаметра зрачка к длине глаза было 0,42 на одном лице и 0,48 на другом.

49.

Sammaknejad, N. 2012. “Facial attractiveness: The role of iris size, pupil size, and scleral color,” PhD diss., University of California – Irvine.

50.

Впервые это было предложено в Trivers, R. L. 1972. “Parental investment and sexual selection,” in B. Campbell, ed. Sexual Selection and the Descent of Man: 1871–1971, 1st edition (Chicago: Aldine), 136–79. См. также Woodward, K., and Richards, M. H. 2005. “The parental investment model and minimum mate choice criteria in humans,” Behavioral Ecology 16(1): 57–61.

51.

Trivers, R. L. 1985. Social Evolution (Menlo Park, CA: Benjamin/Cummings); но посмотрите Masonjones, H. D., and Lewis, S. M. 1996. “Courtship behavior in the dwarf seahorse Hippocampus zosterae,” Copeai 3: 634–40.

52.

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56.

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Здесь есть техническая проблема насчет выгод приспособленности. В этой главе я говорю, что полезно разделять два разных смысла слова «реальный»: существующий и существующий в отсутствие восприятия. Второй смысл я называю объективной реальностью и утверждаю, что наши органы чувств эволюционировали, чтобы отслеживать выгоды приспособленности, а не объективную реальность. Но выгоды приспособленности, как математическая абстракция, могут существовать вне наблюдения. Предположим, например, что я в состоянии глубоко сна без сновидений, и поэтому можно сказать, что ничего не воспринимаю. Тем не менее, кажется обоснованным утверждать, что мои выгоды приспособленности по-прежнему существуют, несмотря на то что я их не наблюдаю. В конце концов, моя приспособленность может снизиться, если я, например, свалюсь с кровати во сне. Итак, мои выгоды приспособленности объективны; они существуют в отсутствие восприятия. Справедливо. Но мои выгоды приспособленности не могли бы существовать, если бы не существовало меня. Есть более сильный смысл объективного, давайте назовем его «строго объективное», когда что-то реально, если оно существует даже тогда, когда не существует воспринимающего. Например, многие физики заявляют, что пространство-время и объекты существовали до появления любых организмов, способных их воспринимать, и поэтому пространство-время и объекты строго объективны. Однако выгоды приспособленности не существуют, если нет организмов, и потому не строго объективны. Когда я говорю, что эволюция сформировала организмы, чье восприятие отслеживает приспособленность, а не истину, то я имею в виду «истину», под которой физики понимают строго объективную реальность.

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Это порождает не решенную проблему в физике “нарушение Лоренц-инвариантности”.

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Квантовая теория информации отличается от классической теории информации, потому что, как сформулировал Фукс (2010), «квантовая механика дополнение к байесовской теории вероятности – не ее обобщение, не что-то полностью самостоятельное, а дополнение». В частности, правило Борна «специальный случай использования закона полной вероятности для другой (гипотетического) контекста». Fuchs, C. 2010. “QBism, the perimeter of quantum Bayesianism,” arXiv:1003.5209v51. See also D’Ariano, G. M., Chiribella, G., and Perinotti, P. 2017. Quantum Theory from First Principles: An Informational Approach (New York: Cambridge University Press).

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202.

Для общего представления о некоторых других интерпретаций квантовой теории смотрите, например, Albert, D. 1992. Quantum Mechanics and Experience (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press); Becker, A. 2018. What Is Real? The Unfinished Quest for the Meaning of Quantum Physics (New York: Basic Books).

203.

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215.

Симметрию можно описать математически, используя теорию групп. Теория групп – особо важный инструмент для создания многих корректирующих кодов. Например, смотрите Togneri, R., and deSilva, C. J. S. 2003. Fundamentals of Information Theory and Coding Design (New York: Chapman & Hall/CRC). Также посмотрите эту лекцию Нейла Слоана: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uCeTOjIlfIg.

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226.

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Я ввел термин хроматура в 2009 г. Он упоминается в этой статье для CNN: https://www.cnn.com/2018/04/26/health/colorscope-benefits-of-a-colorful-life/index.html.

244.

Число частиц в наблюдаемой Вселенной, известное как число Эддингтона, примерно 10 в 80, исключая темную материю. Если каждый пиксель в изображении имеет 24 бита цвета (по 8 бит на красный, зеленый и синий), тогда каждый пиксель имеет 16777216 возможных цветов. В этом случае участок пикселей имеет возможные хроматуры, намного превышающие число Эддингтона.

245.

Imura, T., Masuda, T., Wada, Y., Tomonaga, M., and Okajima, K. 2016. “Chimpanzees can visually perceive differences in the freshness of foods,” Nature 6: 34685, doi: 10.1038/srep34685.

246.

Cytowic, R. E., and Eagleman, D. M. 2009. Wednesday Is Indigo Blue: Discovering the Brain of Synesthesia (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press).

247.

Набоков В. Память, говори/пер. С. Ильина//Собрание сочинений американского периода [Т. 5] Санкт-Петербург: Симпозиум, 1999 г. – 698 с.

248.

Cytowic, R. E., and Eagleman, D. M. 2009. Wednesday Is Indigo Blue: Discovering the Brain of Synesthesia (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press).

249.

Cytowic, R. E. 1993. The Man Who Tasted Shapes (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press).

250.

Cytowic, R. E., and Eagleman, D. M. 2009. Wednesday Is Indigo Blue: Discovering the Brain of Synesthesia (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press).

251.

Cytowic, R. E., and Eagleman, D. M. 2009. Wednesday Is Indigo Blue: Discovering the Brain of Synesthesia (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press).

252.

Asher, Julian E., Lamb, Janine A., Brocklebank, Denise, Cazier, Jean-Baptiste, Maestrini, Elena, Addis, Laura, Sen, Mallika, Baron-Cohen, Simon, and Monaco, Anthony P. 2009. “A whole-genome scan and fine-mapping linkage study of auditory-visual synesthesia reveals evidence of linkage to chromosomes 2q24, 5q33, 6p12, and 12p12,” American Journal of Human Genetics 84(2): 279–85; Tomson, S. N., Avidan, N., Lee, K., Sarma, A. K., Tushe, R., Milewicz, D. M., Bray, M., Lealc, S. M., and Eagleman, D. M. 2011. “The genetics of colored sequence synesthesia: Suggestive evidence of linkage to 16q and genetic heterogeneity for the condition,” Behavioural Brain Research 223: 48–52. Также на синестезию может сильно влиять окружающая среда. Witthoft and Winawer (2006) докладывают, что синестетические цвета могут обуславливаться цветными магнитами на холодильник в детстве: Witthoft, N., and Winawer, J. 2006. “Synesthetic colors determined by having colored refrigerator magnets in childhood,” Cortex 42(2): 175–83.

253.

Novich, S. D., Cheng, S., and Eagleman, D. M. 2011. “Is synesthesia one condition or many? A large-scale analysis reveals subgroups,” Journal of Neuropsychology 5: 353–71.

254.

Hubbard, E. M., and Ramachandran, V. S. 2005. “Neurocognitive mechanisms of synesthesia,” Neuron 48: 509–20; Ramachandran, V. S., and Hubbard, E. M. 2001. “Psychophysical investigations into the neural basis of synaesthesia,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 268: 979–83.

255.

Rouw, R., and Scholte, H. S. 2007. “Increased structural connectivity in graphemecolor synesthesia,” Nature Neuroscience 10: 792–97.

256.

Smilek, Daniel, Dixon, Mike J., Cudahy, Cera, and Merikle, Philip M. 2002. “Synesthetic color experiences influence memory,” Psychological Science 13(6): 548.

257.

Tammet, D. 2006. Born on a Blue Day (London: Hodder & Stoughton).

258.

Banissy, M. J., Walsh, V., and Ward, J. 2009. “Enhanced sensory perception in synaesthesia,” Experimental Brain Research 196: 565–71.

259.

Havlik, A. M., Carmichael, D. A., and Simner, J. 2015. “Do sequence-space synaesthetes have better spatial imagery skills? Yes, but there are individual differences,” Cognitive Processing 16(3): 245–53; Simner, J. 2009. “Synaesthetic visuo-spatial forms: Viewing sequences in space,” Cortex 45: 1138–47; Simner, J., and Hubbard, E. M., eds. 2013. The Oxford Handbook of Synesthesia (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press).

260.

Cytowic, R. E. 1993. The Man Who Tasted Shapes (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press).

261.

Этот пример был предложен Робом Рейдом.

262.

Corcoran, Aaron J., Barber, J. R., and Conner, W. E. 2009. “Tiger moth jams bat sonar,” Science 325 (5938): 325–27, doi: 10.1126/science.1174096.

263.

Tovée, M. J. 2008. An Introduction to the Visual System (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press).

264.

Li, Z. 2014. Understanding Vision: Theory, Models, and Data (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press).

265.

Rensink, R. A., O’Regan, J. K., and Clark, J. J. 1997. “To See or Not to See: The Need for Attention to Perceive Changes in Scenes,” Psychological Science 8: 368–73.

266.

Смотрите, например: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VkrrVozZR2c.

267.

Роль зрительного внимания исследуется в книге Wedel, M., and Pieters, R., eds. 2008. Visual Marketing: From Attention to Action (New York: Lawrence Erlbaum).

268.

Li, Z. 2014. Understanding Vision: Theory, Models, and Data (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press); Sprague, T., Itthipuripat, S., and Serences, J. 2018. “Dissociable signatures of visual salience and behavioral relevance across attentional priority maps in human cortex,” Journal of Neurophysiology http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/196642. Здесь я говорю так, будто нейроны существуют вне наблюдения и могут проявлять активность такую, как передача сигналов. Это лишь удобное условное обозначение, использующее язык нашего интерфейса.

269.

Navalpakkam, V., and Itti, L. 2007. “Search goal tunes visual features optimally,” Neuron 53: 605–17.

270.

Например, Парас и Уэбстер (2013 г.) просили наблюдателей смотреть на изображения с 1/f шумом и обнаружили, что двух темных пятен было достаточно, чтобы запустить восприятие лиц, в результате чего наблюдатели по-новому интерпретировали остальное изображение как лицо. Paras, C., and Webster, M. 2013. “Stimulus requirements for face perception: An analysis based on ‘totem poles,’ ” Frontiers in Psychology 4: 18, http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00018/full.

271.

New, J., Cosmides, L., and Tooby, J. 2007. “Category-specific attention for animals reflects ancestral priorities, not expertise,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104: 16598–603.

272.

Barrett, D. 2010. Supernormal Stimuli: How Primal Urges Overran Their Evolutionary Purpose (New York: W. W. Norton).

273.

Najemnik, J., and Geisler, W. 2005. “Optimal eye movement strategies in visual search,” Nature 434: 387–91; Pomplun, M. 2006. “Saccadic selectivity in complex visual search displays,” Vision Research 46: 1886–1900.

274.

Doyle, J. F., and Pazhoohi, F. 2012. “Natural and augmented breasts: Is what is notnatural most attractive?” Human Ethology Bulletin 27: 4.

275.

Rhodes, G., Brennan, S., and Carey, S. 1987. “Identification and ratings of caricatures: Implications for mental representations of faces,” Cognitive Psychology 19(4): 473–97; Benson, P. J., and Perrett, D. I. 1991. “Perception and recognition of photographic quality facial caricatures: Implications for the recognition of natural images,” European Journal of Cognitive Psychology 3(1): 105–35.

276.

Barrett, D. 2010. Supernormal Stimuli: How Primal Urges Overran Their Evolutionary Purpose (New York: W. W. Norton).

277.

Хороший пример Etcoff, N., Stock, S., Haley, L. E., Vickery, S. A., and House, D. M. 2011. “Cosmetics as a feature of the extended human phenotype: Modulation of the perception of biologically important facial signals,” PLoS ONE 6(10): e25656; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0025656.

278.

Jacobs, G. H. 2009. “Evolution of color vision in mammals,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 364: 2957–67; Melin, A. D., Hiramatsu, C., Parr, N. A., Matsushita, Y., Kawamura, S., and Fedigan, L. M. 2014. “The behavioral ecology of color vision: Considering fruit conspicuity, detection distance and dietary importance,” International Journal of Primatology 35: 258–87; Hurlbert, A. C., and Ling, Y. 2007. “Biological components of sex differences in color preference,” Current Biology 17(16): R623–R625.

279.

New, J., Krasnow, M. M., Truxaw, D., and Gaulin, S. J. C. 2007. “Spatial adaptations for plant foraging: Women excel and calories count,” Proceedings of the Royal Society, B 274: 2679–84.

280.

Jaeger, S. R., Antúnez, L., Gastón, Aresb, Johnston, J. W., Hall, M., and Harker, F. R. 2016. “Consumers’ visual attention to fruit defects and disorders: A case study with apple images,” Postharvest Biology and Technology 116: 36–44.

281.

Gross, D. 2005. “Einstein and the search for unification,” Current Science 89: 2035–40; Cole, K. C. 1999. “Time, space obsolete in new view of universe,” Los Angeles Times, November 16.

282.

Hameroff, S., and Penrose, R. 2014. “Consciousness in the universe: A review of the ‘Orch OR’ theory,” Physics of Life Reviews 11: 39–78.

283.

284.

Точное определение агента сознания дано в приложении.

285.

Цитируется по Пинкер С. Просвещение продолжается. В защиту разума, науки, гуманизма и прогресса/пер. Г. Бородиной, С. Кузнецовой – Москва: Альпина нон-фикшн, 2021 г.

286.

В логике высказываний modus tollens является формой аргумента. Он гласит, что если P подразумевает Q и это не тот случай, когда P, следовательно, это не Q. Пример: если Пат прожил восемьдесят лет, тогда Пат прожил тридцать лет. Пат не прожил тридцать лет. Следовательно, Пат не прожил восемьдесят лет.

287.

Цитируется по Эйнштейн А. Собрание научных трудов. Том 4 – Москва: Наука, 1967 г. – 600с.

288.

Цитируется по Рассел Б. Философия логического атомизма/пер. В.А. Суровцева. – Томск: Водолей, 1999 г. – 192 с.

289.

Точное определение агента сознания дано в приложении.

290.

Более подробно это изложено в статье Fields, C., Hoffman, D. D., Prakash, C., and Singh, M. 2017. “Conscious agent networks: Formal analysis and application to cognition,” Cognitive Systems Research 47: 186–213.

291.

Более подробно это изложено в статье Fields, C., Hoffman, D. D., Prakash, C., and Prentner, R. 2017. “Eigenforms, interfaces and holographic encoding: Toward an evolutionary account of objects and spacetime. Constructivist Foundations 12(3): 265–74.

292.

Краткий обзор панпсихизма можно посмотреть в статье Стэнфордской философской энциклопедии, доступной онлайн. Иногда утверждается, что панпсихизм не является дуализмом. Чтобы подтвердить это утверждение, необходимо создать математически точную научную теорию панпсихизма, которая была бы очевидно недуалистичной. Пока такой теории нет. Теория интегрированной информации (ТИИ) часто считается подразумевающей панпсихизм. Согласно ТИИ, «опыт – максимально несократимая концептуальная структура (МНКС, созвездие понятий в пространстве квалиа), определяемая комплексом элементов. Согласно ТИИ, МНКС определяют качество опыта». Но, как мы обсуждали, ТИИ не смогла определить комплекс для МНКС даже одного конкретного опыта, такого как запах чеснока. Пока этого не произойдет, она не сможет давать экспериментально проверяемые научные прогнозы о конкретных физических системах и связанных с ними конкретных опытах. Подробнее про ТИИ можно прочитать у Oizumi, M., Albantakis, L., and Tononi, G. 2014. “From the phenomenology to the mechanisms of consciousness: Integrated information theory 3.0,” PLOS Computational Biology 10: e1003588; Hoel, E. P. 2017. “When the map is better than the territory,” Entropy 19: 188, doi: 10.3390/e19050188.

293.

Смотрите, например, Clarke, D. S., ed. 2004. Panpsychism: Past and Recent Selected Readings (New York: University of New York Press).

294.

Du, S., Tao, Y., and Martinez, A. M. 2014. “Compound facial expressions of emotion,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111(15): E1454–E1462.

295.

Goodall, J. 2011. My Life with the Chimpanzees (New York: Byron Preiss Visual Publications).

296.

Revuz, D. 1984. Markov Chains (Amsterdam: North-Holland).

297.

Если говорить более техническим языком, набор событий для измеримого пространства является сигма-алгеброй, замкнутой относительно операции счетного объединения. Его можно обобщить до сигма-аддитивного множества, замкнутого относительно операции счетного дизъюнктивного объединения. Например, смотрите Gudder, S. Quantum Probability (San Diego: Academic Press). Можно обобщать еще дальше до конечно-аддитивных множеств.

298.

Revuz, D. 1984. Markov Chains (Amsterdam: North-Holland).

299.

Hoffman, D. D., and Prakash, C. 2014. “Objects of consciousness,” Frontiers in Psychology: Perception Science, http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00577.

300.

Hoffman, D. D., and Prakash, C. 2014. “Objects of consciousness,” Frontiers in Psychology: Perception Science, http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00577.

301.

Fields, C., Hoffman, D. D., Prakash, C., and Prentner, R. 2017. “Eigenforms, interfaces and holographic encoding: Toward an evolutionary account of objects and spacetime,” Constructivist Foundations 12(3): 265–74; Fields, C., Hoffman, D. D., Prakash, C., and Singh, M. 2017. “Conscious agent networks: Formal analysis and application to cognition,” Cognitive Systems Research 47: 186–213.

302.

Канеман Д. Думай медленно… решай быстро/пер. А. Андреева, Н. Парфеновой, Ю. Деглиной – Москва: АСТ, 2013 г. – 710 с.

303.

Они образуют афинную группу AGL(4,2) и действуют в геометрической алгебре G(4,2), соответствующей алгебре пространства-времени. Hoffman, D. D., and Prakash, C. 2014. “Objects of consciousness,” Frontiers in Psychology: Perception Science, http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00577.

304.

Tooby, J., Cosmides, L., and Barrett, H. C. 2003. “The second law of thermodynamics is the first law of psychology: Evolutionary developmental psychology and the theory of tandem, coordinated inheritances: Comment on Lickliter and Honeycutt (2003),” Psychological Bulletin 129: 858–65.

305.

Faggin, F. 2015. “The nature of reality,” Atti e Memorie dell’Accademia Galileiana di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti, Volume CXXVII (2014–2015) (Padova: Accademia Galileiana di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti). Он говорит скорее о единицах сознания, а не агентах сознания.

306.

Беркли Дж. Трактат о принципах человеческого знания//Сочинения – Москва: Наука, 1978 г., с. 152–247.

307.

Больше о проблеме разграничения науки и псевдонауки можно узнать из Pigliucci, M., and Boudry, M., eds. 2013. Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem (Chicago: University of Chicago Press); Dawid, R. 2013. String Theory and the Scientific Method (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press).

308.

Например, Мерсье и Спербер (2011): «Наша гипотеза состоит в том, что функция логических рассуждений заключается в спорах. Выводить и оценивать аргументы, направленные на убеждение». Таппин, ван дер Леер и Маккей (2017): Мы наблюдали стойкую предвзятость: индивиды легче меняли свои убеждения, если доказательства согласовывались с желаемым для них результатом. Это смещение не зависело от того, согласовывалось или нет доказательство с их предыдущими убеждениями… мы обнаружили ограниченные доказательства независимого предвзятого восприятия в изменении убеждений». Mercier, H., and Sperber, D. 2011. “Why do humans reason? Arguments for an argumentative theory,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 34: 57–111; Tappin, B. M., van der Leer, L., and McKay, R. T. 2017. “The heart trumps the head: Desirability bias in political belief revision,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, doi: 10.1037/xge0000298.

309.

Gould, S. J. 2002. Rocks of Ages: Science and Religion in the Fullness of Life (New York: Ballantine Books).

310.

Dawkins, R. 1998. “When religion steps on science’s turf,” Free Inquiry 18(2): 18–19.

311.

Hoffman, D. D., and Prakash, C. 2014. “Objects of consciousness,” Frontiers in Psychology: Perception Science, http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00577.

312.

Hoffman, D. D., and Prakash, C. 2014. “Objects of consciousness,” Frontiers in Psychology: Perception Science, http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00577; Fields, C., Hoffman, D. D., Prakash, C., and Prentner, R. 2017. “Eigenforms, interfaces and holographic encoding: Toward an evolutionary account of objects and spacetime,” Constructivist Foundations 12(3): 265–74; Fields, C., Hoffman, D. D., Prakash, C., and Singh, M. 2017. “Conscious agent networks: Formal analysis and application to cognition,” Cognitive Systems Research 47: 186–213.

313.

Revuz, D. 1984. Markov Chains (Amsterdam: North-Holland).

314.

Hoffman, D. D., and Prakash, C. 2014. “Objects of consciousness,” Frontiers in Psychology: Perception Science, http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00577; Fields, C., Hoffman, D. D., Prakash, C., and Prentner, R. 2017. “Eigenforms, interfaces and holographic encoding: Toward an evolutionary account of objects and spacetime,” Constructivist Foundations 12(3): 265–74; Fields, C., Hoffman, D. D., Prakash, C., and Singh, M. 2018. “Conscious agents networks: Formal analysis and application to cognition,” Cognitive Systems Research 47: 186–213.

315.

Doran, C., and Lasenby, A. 2003. Geometric Algebra for Physicists (New York: Cambridge University Press), section 10.7.

316.

Эволюция сетей «мир тесен» обсуждается, например, у Jarman, N., Steur, E., Trengove, C., Tyuykin, I. Y., and van Leeuewn, C. 2017. “Self-organization of small-world networks by adaptive rewiring in response to graph diffusion,” Nature Reports 7: 13158, doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-12589-9); Newman, M. E. J. 2010. Networks: An Introduction (New York: Oxford University Press).

Оглавление.